Method for manufacturing contrast amplifying substrates

ABSTRACT

A method for producing a contrast-amplifying support comprising an absorbing substrate carrying at least one absorbing layer comprises a design step for the support and the following steps: i) choosing an illumination wavelength λ; ii) choosing a material constituting the substrate and exhibiting, at illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index N0=n0−jk0 with k0≧0.01; iii) choosing an ambient medium in contact with the layer on the side opposite to the substrate and exhibiting, at illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index N3=n3−jk3 with k3≧0; iv) determining a nominal complex refractive index N1=n1−jk1 and a nominal thickness e1 of the layer wherein it behaves in the guise of antireflection layer when illuminated under normal incidence at illumination wavelength λ; and v) choosing a material constituting the layer and exhibiting, at illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index whose real and imaginary parts coincide with the nominal complex refractive index.

The invention pertains to a method for manufacturing contrast-amplifying supports.

The invention is able to be applied to various technical fields, such as biology (detection of biomolecules or microorganisms, observation of cell cultures), nanotechnologies (viewing of nano-objects, such as nanotubes), microelectronics, materials science, etc.

The use of antireflection layers (or “λ/4” layers) to increase the optical contrast of an object observed by reflection optical microscopy is a very powerful technique that has been known for many years; in particular, it allowed the first observation of molecular walks by Langmuir and Blodgett in 1937 and, more recently, the viewing of graphene layers by Novoselov et al.

Let I be the luminous intensity reflected by the object to be observed, deposited on a support, and I_(s) that reflected by the support alone; then, the contrast with which the sample is observed equals C=(I−I_(s))/(I+I_(s)). It is understood that the absolute value of this contrast takes its maximum value (equal to 1) when I_(s)=0, that is to say when the support has zero reflectivity, or else when the supported object has zero reflectivity. In the simplest case, the condition I_(s)=0 is satisfied by using in the guise of support a transparent substrate on which is deposited a thin layer, likewise transparent, whose thickness and refractive index are chosen in an opportune manner. In the case of a single antireflection layer, illuminated under normal incidence with a transparent and semi-infinite incident medium (from which the illumination originates) and a transparent and semi-infinite emergent medium (the substrate), the following conditions are obtained:

n ₁ ² =n ₀ n ₃  (1a)

n ₁ e ₁=Δ/4  (1b)

where n₁ is the refractive index (real) of the layer, n₀ and n₃ the refractive indices (also real) of the incident and emergent media, e₁ the thickness of the layer and λ the illumination wavelength.

For given incident and emergent media, equation (1a) determines in a one-to-one manner the refractive index of the antireflection layer. Unfortunately, this index might not correspond to a commonly used material or one which satisfies diverse constraints related to the application specifically considered. For example, in the case of an air-glass interface—the practical interest of which is obvious—we obtain n₁≅1.27, thus requiring the use of composite materials such as aerogels.

The invention is aimed at overcoming this drawback of the prior art.

To achieve this, the invention proposes to use absorbing antireflection layers, exhibiting a complex refractive index. The extra degree of freedom associated with the presence of an imaginary part of the index makes it possible to relax the constraint bearing on the value of its real part. Moreover, whilst it is difficult to modify the real part of the refractive index of a material, it is relatively simple to modify its imaginary part (for example, by introducing absorbing or diffusing impurities, the diffusion “simulating” absorption).

It should be noted that—in the case of the conventional “λ/4” layers—the increase in the contrast results from an interferential effect which involves multiple reflections at the incident medium/layer interface and layer/emergent medium interface. Now, the absorption of light inside the layer tends to remove the interference between these multiple reflections. Consequently, the very concept of an “absorbing antireflection layer” seems at first sight contrary to intuition.

The paper by S. G. Moiseev and S. V. Vinogradov “Design of Antireflection Composite Coating Based on Metal Nanoparticle”, Physics of Wave Phenomena, 2011, Vol. 10, No. 1, pages 47-51 studies the conditions that must be satisfied by a weakly absorbing thin layer deposited on a transparent substrate in order to cancel the reflection under normal incidence at the air-substrate interface, the illumination being performed through the air. This document also describes an absorbing thin layer made of composite material containing metallic nanoparticles satisfying these conditions approximately. This layer reduces the reflection at the air-substrate interface, but does not cancel it totally. Furthermore, its manner of operation has been demonstrated—by an analytical study limited to materials with very weak absorption, but this result is difficult to generalize. Moreover, such a coating is not intended to achieve a contrast-amplifying support.

The following papers:

-   M. A. Kats et al. “Nanometre optical coatings based on strong     interference effects in highly absorbing media”, Nature Materials,     Vol. 12, January 2013, pages 20-24; and -   R. M. A. Azzam et al. “Antireflection of an absorbing substrate by     an absorbing thin film at normal incidence”, Applied Optics, Vol.     26, No. 4, pages 719-722 (1987)     disclose absorbing antireflection layers deposited on substrates     which are also absorbing. Here again, only particular cases are     described, which are difficult to generalize. Furthermore, in the     case of the paper by M. A. Kats et al., the removal of the     reflection is merely partial.

Document U.S. Pat. No. 5,216,542 discloses an antireflection coating for a glass substrate comprising, on a front face (intended to be illuminated) of the substrate, a multilayer structure comprising transparent layers and absorbing layers of TiN_(x) and, on a rear face of said substrate, a single absorbing layer of TiN_(x) whose thickness is not, however, of such a nature as to ensure zero reflectivity, but only low. Such a coating is not intended to achieve a contrast-amplifying support.

In accordance with the invention, the contrast-amplifying support comprises a substrate which is also absorbing. Such a configuration is particularly appropriate for applications in microelectronics. In contradistinction to the aforementioned papers by M. A. Kats et al. and by R. M. A. Azzam et al., the invention makes it possible to produce an absorbing antireflection layer suitable for any absorbing substrate, in the presence of any incident medium—absorbing or transparent.

Moreover, absorbing antireflection layers such as described hereinafter may also be appropriate for applications other than contrast amplification—in fact, whenever one wishes to remove or attenuate the reflection of light between an absorbing substrate and a transparent or absorbing ambient medium, in the presence of illumination originating from said ambient medium.

A subject of the invention is therefore a method for producing a contrast-amplifying support comprising an absorbing substrate carrying at least one absorbing layer, said method comprising a design step for said support and a step of hardware production of the support in accordance with said design step, characterized in that said design step comprises the following steps:

-   -   i) choosing an illumination wavelength λ;     -   ii) choosing a material constituting said substrate and         exhibiting, at said illumination wavelength λ, a complex         refractive index N₀=n₀−jk₀, where k₀≧0.01 and preferably         k₀≧0.01;

iii) choosing an ambient medium in contact with said layer on the side opposite to said substrate and exhibiting, at said illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index N₃=n₃−jk₃, where k₃≧0;

iv) determining a nominal complex refractive index N₁=n₁−jk₁ and a nominal thickness e₁ of said layer which are such that it behaves in the guise of antireflection layer when it is illuminated under normal incidence at said illumination wavelength λ; and

v) choosing a material constituting said layer and exhibiting, at said illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index whose real and imaginary parts coincide with those of said nominal complex refractive index at least by a tolerance of less than or equal to 5%, and preferably less than or equal to 0.3%;

in which, during said step iv), said nominal complex refractive index and said nominal thickness are chosen satisfying the following conditions:

$\begin{matrix} {v_{1}^{2} = {1 + \kappa_{1}^{2} + {\frac{\left( {\kappa_{3} - \kappa_{0}} \right)}{\left( {a_{03} - 1} \right)}\left\lbrack {{2\sqrt{\alpha_{03}}v_{1}\kappa_{1}} - {\alpha_{03}\kappa_{3}} - {\kappa \; 0} - {\kappa \; 0\kappa \; 3}} \right.}}} & \left. a \right) \\ {\delta_{1} = \frac{a_{03} - 1}{{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}} - {\sqrt{\alpha_{03}}\kappa_{3}} - {\sqrt{\frac{1}{\alpha_{03}}}\kappa_{0}}}} & \left. b \right) \\ {{\kappa_{1} \leq v_{1}},{and}} & \left. c \right) \\ {{{{k_{1} \geq 0.15}{{where}\text{:}}\delta_{1} = {\frac{2\pi \; n_{0}}{\lambda}_{1}}};}{{v_{1} = \frac{n_{1}}{\sqrt{n_{0}n_{3}}}};}{{\alpha_{03} = {n_{0}\text{/}n_{3}}};{and}}{{\kappa_{i} = {{\frac{\kappa_{i}}{\sqrt{n_{0}n_{3}}}\mspace{14mu} {for}\mspace{14mu} i} = 0}},1,3.}} & \left. d \right) \end{matrix}$

Said absorbing layer can be made of a conducting material such as a metal, and said substrate be made of a semi-conducting material. Or, conversely, can be made of a semi-conducting material and said substrate be made of a conducting material such as a metal.

Conventionally, it will be considered that a material is transparent to a wavelength λ when the imaginary part of its refractive index at this wavelength is less than 0.01, or indeed than 0.001, or indeed than 0.0001.

Other characteristics, details and advantages of the invention will emerge on reading the description given with reference to the appended drawings which are given by way of example and which represent, respectively:

FIG. 1, a structure consisting of a thin layer between two semi-infinite media;

FIGS. 2A to 2D, graphs illustrating the relation between the real and imaginary parts of the refractive indices of absorbing antireflection layers;

FIGS. 3A to 3C, graphs illustrating the relation between the thicknesses and the imaginary parts of the refractive indices of absorbing antireflection layers;

FIGS. 4A to 4F, graphs illustrating the relation between the thicknesses and the reflectances (4A-4D) or absorbances (4E, 4F) of absorbing antireflection layers;

FIGS. 5A and 5B, graphs illustrating the contrasts of observation of a sample, which are obtained by virtue of supports comprising absorbing antireflection layers;

FIGS. 5C and 5D, graphs illustrating the contrasts of observation of samples of different thicknesses, which are obtained by virtue of a support comprising an absorbing antireflection layer;

FIG. 6, an application of a contrast-amplifying support comprising an absorbing antireflection layer;

FIGS. 7A to 7E, methods for detecting or assaying at least one chemical or biological species; and

FIG. 8, a contrast-amplifying support according to one embodiment of the invention, implementing an absorbing substrate.

FIG. 1 illustrates a parallel light beam FL (that may be regarded locally as a plane wave) monochromatic at a wavelength (in vacuo) λ, under normal incidence on a structure consisting of: a so-called incident semi-infinite medium MI, from which the light beam originates, which is transparent and characterized by a real refractive index n₀; an absorbing layer CA of thickness e₁, characterized by a complex refractive index N₁=n₁−jk₁ (“j” being the imaginary unit); and a so-called emergent semi-infinite medium ME, situated on the side of the layer opposite to that from which the light originates, which is transparent and characterized by a real refractive index n₃<n₀. The incident medium can in particular be a substrate, for example made of glass, on which the layer CA is deposited. A sample (not represented) of real refractive index n₂—or of complex refractive index N₂=n₂−jk₂—can be deposited on the layer CA, on the side of the emergent medium. As was explained above, so as to maximize the contrast with which the sample is observed, it is necessary to cancel the reflectance of the incident medium MI/layer CA/emergent medium ME assembly in the absence of sample.

The complex reflection coefficient of a structure of the type illustrated in FIG. 1 (layer of thickness e₁ lying between two semi-infinite media) is given by the Airy formula:

$\begin{matrix} {r_{013} = \frac{r_{01} + {r_{13}^{{- 2}j\; \beta_{1}}}}{1 + {r_{01}r_{13}^{{- 2}j\; \beta_{1}}}}} & (2) \end{matrix}$

where r_(ij) is the Fresnel coefficient at the interface i−j (j=0, 1 or 3, “0” corresponding to the incident medium, “1” to the layer CA and “3” to the emergent medium) and β₁=2πn₁ e₁ cos θ₁/Δ is the phase factor associated with said layer, θ₁ being the angle of refraction in the layer. Initially, a transparent layer of real index n₁ is considered, the generalization in the case of an absorbing layer will be dealt with further on. Still initially, an incidence which may not be normal is considered.

The Fresnel coefficients for the “p” (TM) and “s” (TE), polarizations are:

$r_{ij}^{(p)} = \frac{\left( {{n_{j}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{i}} - {n_{i}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{j}}} \right)}{\left( {{n_{j}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{i}} + {n_{i}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{j}}} \right)}$ and $r_{ij}^{(s)} = \frac{\left( {{n_{i}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{i}} - {n_{j}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{j}}} \right)}{\left( {{n_{i}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{i}} + {n_{j}\mspace{14mu} \cos \mspace{14mu} \theta_{j}}} \right)}$

The antireflection condition corresponds to r₀₁₃=0 which, in the case of transparent media (real indices), gives two families of solutions:

the so-called “λ/2” layers, for which

$e_{1} = \frac{m\; \lambda}{\left( {2n_{1}\cos \; \theta_{1}} \right)}$

where m is an integer, which exist only if n₀=n₃; and

the so-called “λ/4” layers, for which n₁e₁=(2p+1)λ/4 (p an integer).

In the case where the medium 1 (layer CA) is absorbing, its refractive index N₁=n₁−jk₁ is complex; the angle of refraction—which is then indicated by Θ₁—and the phase coefficient—B₁— are also complex. In this case, r₀₁₃=0 requires: r_(01,s)r_(13,p)=r_(01,p)r_(13,s); this equality can only be true if one of the following three conditions: Θ₁=0 (normal incidence), N₁ ²=n₀ ² (no layer) or n₀ ²=n₃ ² (identical incident and emergent media) is satisfied. Consequently, in the case of arbitrary extreme media, the antireflection condition can only be satisfied under normal incidence. Knowing that r_(011,p)=−r_(01,s) and that r_(13,p)=r_(13,s), equation (2) becomes:

$\begin{matrix} {{N_{1}^{2} - {j\frac{\left( {n_{3} - n_{0}} \right)}{\tan \; B_{1}}N_{1}} - {n_{0}n_{3}}} = 0} & (3) \end{matrix}$

Equation (3) is transcendental and does not admit of an analytical solution. However, it is possible to find solutions corresponding to extreme cases: strongly absorbing layer and weakly absorbing layer.

In the strongly absorbing case, it may be assumed that e₁<<2 since the light would not propagate through a very absorbing and thick layer; consequently, |B₁|<<1 and it is then possible to write, to second order in B₁:

tan B₁≅=B₁=√{square root over (n₃/n₀)}(N₁/√{square root over (n₀n₃)})δ₁, where δ₁=(2πn₀/λ)e₁. It is useful to separate the real and imaginary parts of the equation, and to use the “reduced” variables v₁=n₁/√{square root over (n₀n₃)} and κ₁=k₁/√{square root over (n₀n₃)}. Equation (3) can then be written in the form of the following system:

$\begin{matrix} {v_{1}^{2} = {1 + \kappa_{1}^{2}}} & \left( {4a} \right) \\ {\delta_{1} = \frac{\left( {\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}} - 1} \right)}{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}}} & \left( {4b} \right) \end{matrix}$

Given that δ₁ must be real and positive, we have the condition n₀>n₃ (“reversed geometry”). By taking n₀=1.52 and n₃=1.34—thus corresponding to the glass/water case customarily used in biophotonics—a thickness e₁=(λ/2π)(n₀−n₃)/2n₁k₁ of the order of a nanometer is found, thus confirming the initial assumption. It is interesting—and unexpected—that equation (4a) tends to the conventional index condition as κ₁—and therefore k₁—tends to zero. A comparison with numerical results makes it possible to verify that equation (4a), although derived under the assumption of a strongly absorbing layer, is approximately valid for any value of k₁. On the other hand, the value of e₁ obtained on the basis of equation (4b) does not tend to λ/4n₁; consequently, equation (4b) does not have general validity.

In the weakly absorbing case we put B₁=π/2−∈₁ (where ∈₁ is a complex variable), thus implying:

$ɛ_{1} = {{\pi \text{/}2} - {\sqrt{\frac{n_{3}}{n_{0}}}\left( {v_{1} - {j\; \kappa_{1}}} \right){\delta_{1}.}}}$

It is then possible to write, to second order in κ₁:

$\begin{matrix} {v_{1}^{2} = {1 + {\frac{\pi}{2}\sqrt{\frac{n_{3}}{n_{0}}}\left( {\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}} - 1} \right)\kappa_{1}} - {3\kappa_{1}^{2}} + {o\left( \kappa_{1}^{3} \right)}}} & \left( {5a} \right) \\ {\delta_{1}\overset{\sim}{-}{\frac{\pi}{2}\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\frac{1}{v_{1}}\left\{ {1 - {\frac{4}{\pi}\frac{\sqrt{n_{0}\text{/}n_{3}}}{\left( {{n_{0}\text{/}n_{3}} - 1} \right)}\kappa_{1}} + \kappa_{1}^{2} + {o\left( \kappa_{1}^{3} \right)}} \right\}}} & \left( {5b} \right) \end{matrix}$

In practice, equation (5a)—whose domain of validity turns out to be very restricted—is of little interest since, as mentioned above, equation (4a) constitutes a satisfactory approximation for any value of k₁. This is illustrated by FIG. 2A, which shows the relation v₁(κ₁); the curves corresponding to a numerical solution of equation (3) and to equation (4a) cannot be distinguished. FIG. 2B shows the error—as a percentage—of equation (4a) with respect to the numerical solution: it may be seen that this error is very low. FIGS. 2C and 2D are magnifications of FIG. 2A which make it possible to study in greater detail the weak absorption regime; in these figures, curve c4a corresponds to equation (4a), valid for a strong absorption, c3 to the numerical solution of equation (3), c5a to equation (5a) and c5a′ to equation (5a) truncated to first order. It may be seen that equation (5a) and its version to first order actually constitute a better approximation than equation 4a for low values of κ₁, but that equation (4a) remains a fairly good approximation in all cases, while equation (5a) rapidly loses any relevance.

FIGS. 3A and 3B illustrate the relation δ₁(κ₁); the curve cN corresponds to the numerical solution of equation 3, c4b corresponds to equation 4b, valid for large and c5b corresponds to equation 5b. It may be seen that, in this case, the solution obtained for high k₁ does not constitute an acceptable approximation for small κ₁. On the other hand, there exists a semi-empirical equation—corresponding to curve c6b—which turns out to be satisfactory in all cases. FIG. 3C illustrates the error of this semi-empirical solution with respect to the numerical solution: it never exceeds 3.5%. The semi-empirical solution is given by equation 6b hereinbelow; equation 6a is simply equation 4a which, as was shown above, can be considered general and used as replacement for 5b even for small κ₁:

$\begin{matrix} {v_{1}^{2} = {1 + \kappa_{1}^{2}}} & \left( {6a} \right) \\ {\delta_{1} \cong {\frac{\left( {{n_{0}\text{/}n_{3}} - 1} \right)}{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}}\left\lbrack {1 - ^{- \frac{\kappa_{1}}{K}}} \right\rbrack}} & \left( {6b} \right) \end{matrix}$

-   -   where K={[π/(n₀/n₃−1)]√{square root over (n₀/n₃)}}⁻¹

FIG. 4A shows the reflectance curves as a function of δ₁ for various values of κ₁; FIG. 4B shows the reflectance curves as a function of 1/δ₁. As 1/δ₁ is proportional to λ, FIG. 4B illustrates how the reflectance of a given substrate varies as a function of the illumination wavelength. It may be noted that an absorbing antireflection layer dimensioned to operate at a wavelength λ attenuates the reflection also at wavelengths λ′>λ. This makes it possible to use these supports under polychromatic illumination also; in the latter case, it is appropriate to perform the dimensioning of the absorbing antireflection layer with respect to the smallest wavelength used for the illumination.

FIGS. 4C and 4D are magnifications of FIGS. 4A and 4B, respectively, showing more specifically the region of the low reflectances. FIGS. 4E and 4F show the absorbance curves for various values of κ₁, respectively as a function of δ₁ and 1/δ₁.

FIGS. 4A to 4D show that the reduced thickness δ₁ of an absorbing antireflection layer is all the lower the more significant the reduced imaginary part κ₁ of its refractive index. Stated otherwise, the more absorbing the layer, the thinner it must be. Curves 4E and 4F make it possible to verify that the absorbance at the thickness δ₁ given by equation 6b is practically independent of κ₁ and equals about 0.1.

In their aforementioned paper, G. Moiseev and S. V. Vinogradov have studied an absorbing antireflection layer used in a non-reversed configuration (illumination originating from the medium of lower index); they have found a thickness all the larger the higher the imaginary part of the refractive index of the layer, leading to an absorbance which increases rapidly with the latter. Under these conditions, the ANtiReflection layer can only exist for very low values of k₁ it would not be possible to use a very absorbing antireflection layer in the guise of contrast-amplifying layer. This problem does not arise in the case considered here.

FIGS. 5A to 5D make it possible to study the contrast with which a sample can be observed by virtue of supports comprising an absorbing antireflection layer such as described hereinabove. We consider a glass substrate, an emergent medium consisting of water (n₀/n₃=1.14) and a sample consisting of a transparent layer of refractive index n₂=1.46. FIG. 5A shows the value of the contrast C with which a sample of thickness e₂=1 nm is observed, as a function of the reduced thickness δ₁ for the same values of κ₁ as those considered in FIGS. 4A-4F: κ₁=0 (non-absorbing antireflection layer, not forming part of the invention); 0.1; 0.3; 0.6; 1 and 2. FIG. 5B shows the value of this contrast as a function of 1/δ₁.

We note that:

only the non-absorbing layer allows a genuine inversion of the contrast (dark sample on bright background); the layer κ₁=0.1 allows such an inversion but only at a very low contrast level;

the width of the contrast spikes is all the lower—and therefore the tolerance on the reduced thickness of the antireflection layer—the higher is κ₁. In the case of an object to be observed having a thickness of 1 nm, for κ₁=0.1 the contrast remains acceptable (0.4) even when δ₁ deviates by ±10% from its optimal value, but it is difficult for this tolerance to exceed 1% for κ₁=1.

FIGS. 5C and 5D make it possible to study the influence of the thickness of the sample: they show the value of the contrast C as a function of δ₁ and of 1/δ₁ respectively, in the case κ₁=0.1 and for e₂=1 nm, 0.1 nm and 0.01 nm (these are effective thicknesses of samples that may consist of sparse atoms or molecules, disposed on the surface of the contrast-amplifying layer). We note that the contrast C can always reach a value of 1, but that the tolerance on δ₁ is all the more reduced the lower the thickness e₂. Specifically, as δ₁ depends as much on the thickness of the absorbing antireflection layer as on the illumination wavelength, in the case of very fine samples it may be advantageous to finely adjust this wavelength to maximize the contrast.

It can also be advantageous to choose an illumination wavelength and/or a thickness of the absorbing antireflection layer such that δ₁ is slightly greater than its optimal value, so that the contrast becomes a monotonic function of the thickness of the object, thereby allowing the mapping thereof.

FIG. 6 represents a contrast-amplifying support SAC comprising a transparent substrate SS—made for example of glass—serving as incident medium, an antireflection absorbing layer CA deposited on said substrate and in contact with an emergent medium ME, for example an aqueous solution or air. A sample ECH is deposited on a portion of the layer CE, on the side of the emergent medium. The substrate is illuminated under normal incidence by a light beam FL which is, in the example considered here, a laser beam with Gaussian profile, focused by a lens LE at the level of the antireflection layer. It is indeed known that, in its focal region (“beam waist”), a Gaussian beam exhibits a plane phase front, and can therefore be regarded locally as a plane wave (case considered in the foregoing theoretical developments). A semi-transparent mirror MST deviates a portion of the light reflected by the substrate SS/layer CA/sample ECH/emergent medium ME assembly, to direct it toward an objective LO, allowing observation of said sample. The observation can be done by scanning or “full field”. As a variant, it is been possible to use a parallel light beam or a telecentric viewing system. It should be noted that the spatial coherence of the incident light and its polarization state are of no significance. On the other hand, if it is desired to observe an intensity contrast, it is appropriate to use narrowband illumination; polychromatic illumination leads to a contrast which is not as much of intensity as of color (sample observed with a different color from that of the background and different colors according to the thickness of the sample).

In the setup of FIG. 6, the lenses LO and LE are interchangeable. Moreover, the parasitic reflection on the front face of the substrate can be usefully attenuated by techniques such as: immersion in an oil, the existence of a bevel between the front face and the rear face, spatial filtering, conventional antireflection treatment.

To design a contrast-amplifying support of the type illustrated in FIG. 6 it is possible to proceed in the following manner:

-   -   Firstly, the illumination wavelength (or the smallest         illumination wavelength, if the illumination is polychromatic) λ         is determined as a function of the application considered or of         various technological constraints.     -   Thereafter, a first material intended to constitute the         substrate and a material intended to constitute the “ambient         medium” or “emergent medium” are chosen. Often, the choice of         the ambient medium is determined by the application considered         (generally an aqueous solution for biological applications); the         choice of the material constituting the substrate is dictated by         technological considerations and by the constraint n₃<n₀ at the         wavelength λ. Often, a glass substrate will be chosen, together         with an ambient medium consisting of air (ratio n₃/n₀ lying         between 1.45 and 1.7) or water (ratio n₃/n₀ lying between 1.1         and 1.3).     -   Next, equation 6a is used to determine the relation linking the         real part and the imaginary part of the refractive index of the         material constituting the absorbing antireflection layer. A         material satisfying this relation is then chosen—or designed.         For example, it is possible to choose a transparent starting         material as a function of diverse technological         considerations—for example a polymer; take the real part of its         refractive index as an imposed datum; and modify the imaginary         part of said refractive index by adding impurities (dyes,         nanoparticles . . . ) so that equation 6a is satisfied.     -   Finally, the thickness of said layer is determined by applying         equation 6b (or one of equations 4b or 5b, which constitute         particular cases thereof).

Thereafter, the production of the support is undertaken by conventional techniques, such as spin coating, immersion coating, roll coating, coating by sedimentation or by evaporation; chemical or physical vapor deposition, ion implantation, electrolytic deposition, etc.

The absorbing antireflection layer can be metallic (and in particular gold), semi-conducting, non-metallic conducting, made of polymer containing pigments or dyes, made of inorganic (mineral) material containing color centers, etc. Among the semi-conducting materials suitable for producing absorbing antireflection layers may be mentioned: germanium (for applications in the near ultraviolet (UV), for example at 354 nm), TiO₂ (also in the near UV), molybdenum silicide, nickel silicide or titanium silicide (in the visible), tungsten silicide (in the near infrared or in the near UV), zirconium silicide (in the visible or the near UV), tantalum or vanadium (in the visible), etc. It can also contain metallic nanoparticles. It can be magnetic, this being of interest for the study of samples which are also magnetic. The use of conducting layers—metallic or not—makes it possible to apply a controlled potential difference to the sample and/or to carry out “electrochemical imaging” making it possible to study phenomena of electrodeposition, corrosion, catalysis, etc. A particularly interesting variant consists in making a monolithic support, in which the absorbing antireflection layer is a layer of impurities implanted—for example by ion implantation—on the surface of the substrate; such a substrate can be cleaned and reused, with no danger of impairing the layer. An “absorbing” antireflection layer need not necessarily be absorbing in the proper sense: as a variant, it may be a diffusing layer, the diffusion “imitating” absorption and being able likewise to be modeled by a complex refractive index.

A contrast-amplifying substrate such as described hereinabove also allows the production of biochips for the detection and/or assaying of chemical or biological species. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 7, it is possible to deposit a functionalized layer CF on the contrast-amplifying layer CA. This functionalized layer is placed in contact with a solution S, for example aqueous, containing the chemical or biological species to be detected ECD. The latter is fixed by the functionalized layer and forms an additional thin layer CE, constituting the sample to be observed. In practice, in the case of a biochip, several different functionalized pads will be deposited, making it possible to selectively fix different chemical or biological species. By observing the biochip with a microscope, under the conditions described hereinabove, the species that are actually present in the solution can be easily identified. In certain embodiments, one and the same layer can carry out both the chemical function of selective fixing and also the optical function of contrast amplification.

Preferably, outside of the pads it is possible to provide a passivation layer preventing the fixing of any chemical or biological species contained in said solution (“chemical passivation”). It is possible to use for example a polyethylene glycol, a fluorinated polymer, or a fluorinated alkyl, for example functionalized by thiols in the case of gold. This passivation layer can be deposited in the vapor phase or in the liquid phase after the production of the pads. As a variant or supplement, it is possible to use a discontinuous absorbing antireflection layer, present (or exhibiting an optimal thickness) only in correspondence with the pads; one then speaks of “optical passivation”.

When one wishes to detect or deposit chemical or biological species, it is also possible to use a substrate provided solely with the functionalized layer CF. In this case, the absorbing antireflection layer consists of those species fixed by said layer CF.

According to a first embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 7B, the functionalized layer is placed in contact with a solution containing a chemical or biological species ECD to be detected or assayed, marked by metallic nanoparticles NPM and able to be fixed on said functionalized layer so as to form a metallic layer CM. This layer may in reality be discontinuous, but it appears continuous on the scale of the wavelength of visible light (several hundred nanometers), with an effective thickness which may be a fraction of the diameter of the nanoparticle, and with an effective refractive index. The observation is made in the manner described above, the metallic layer thus constituted serving both as contrast-amplifying layer and sample. For a determined time of contact between the solution and the functionalized layer, the thickness of the metallic layer depends on the content of chemical or biological species, thereby making it possible to carry out an assay.

As a variant, the metallic nanoparticles can be replaced with an absorbing marker, for example a fluorescent molecule (note that the fluorescence, per se, is not utilized, but a fluorescent molecule is strongly absorbing).

The drawback of the first embodiment is to allow only the detection of a marked chemical or biological species. The following embodiments do not exhibit this drawback.

According to the second embodiment (FIG. 7C), the functionalized layer is placed in contact with a first solution S1 containing the chemical or biological species to be detected or assayed, so as to form a so-called intermediate layer CI. This intermediate layer is not observable. To reveal it, it is placed in contact with a second solution S2, containing a so-called auxiliary chemical or biological species ECA, marked by metallic nanoparticles (or an absorbing marker) and able to be fixed on said intermediate layer so as to form the metallic (or absorbing) layer CM.

The technique can be quantitative if the species to be detected is present in insufficient quantity to saturate the functionalized layer and, on the other hand, the auxiliary species is present in excess. In this case, indeed, the effective thickness and effective index of the layer CM—and therefore the intensity of the observed luminous signal—will depend on the concentration of the species to be detected.

This second embodiment can only be used if the chemical or biological species to be detected exhibits at least two active sites; it does not therefore apply, for example, to haptens. Furthermore, it is fairly complex to implement.

The following embodiments do not exhibit this drawback.

According to the third embodiment (FIG. 7D), the functionalized layer is placed in contact with a first solution (S1) containing a chemical or biological species, the so-called intermediate species ECI, marked by metallic nanoparticles or an absorbing marker and able to be fixed on said functionalization layer so as to form said continuous or discontinuous, metallic or absorbing layer (CM). Thereafter, the assembly thus obtained is placed in contact with a second solution (S2) containing the chemical or biological species to be detected or assayed, which exhibits a greater affinity with said functionalization layer than that of said intermediate species. Thus, the intermediate species is displaced and said metallic or absorbing layer is removed at least in part, this being manifested by an increase in the luminous signal. The technique applies both at a qualitative level to the detection and at a quantitative level to the assaying of the targeted species. An advantage of this approach is that its two steps can be dissociated: the supports can be provided ready to be used as chemical or biological sensors, with the layer CM already formed.

According to a fourth embodiment (FIG. 7E), said functionalized layer is placed in contact with a solution S containing the chemical or biological species to be assayed, as well as said competing chemical or biological species ECC, one of the two species (preferably the competing species) being marked by metallic nanoparticles or an absorbing marker. Thus, a metallic or absorbing layer CM is obtained whose effective thickness and effective index depend on the ratio of the concentration of said competing chemical or biological species to that of said chemical or biological species to be assayed. As in the other embodiments, the signal depends on this effective thickness and on this effective index.

The chemical or biological species can be, for example, antibodies, antigens, proteins, DNA, RNA, saccharides, enzymes, metal ions (in particular for applications to water monitoring), aromatic molecules, organic molecules such as hydrocarbons, microorganisms, etc.

Instead of being metallic or absorbing, the marker can be diffusing. Indeed, as was explained above, the effect of the diffusion can be expressed by a refractive index having an imaginary part. Thus, dielectric nanoparticles such as mineral nanoparticles of silica or of alumina, dendrimers, latex nanoparticles, vesicles, or viruses can play the same role as metallic nanoparticles.

The detection or assaying techniques described hereinabove also apply when the functionalized layer is deposited on a contrast amplification layer such as described above. The functionalized layer, and if appropriate the contrast amplification layer, can be structured as pads, and the surface outside of these pads can be chemically and/or optically passivated, as explained above.

Hitherto we have considered only the case where the illumination and the observation are done through a substrate exhibiting a (real) refractive index which is greater than that of the ambient medium—this being called a “rear face” or “reversed geometry”. As a variant, it is also possible to operate in a “front face” configuration, that is to say performing the illumination and the observation through the ambient medium; in this case, the substrate must exhibit a lower refractive index than that of said ambient medium: n₀<n₃.

Another generalization consists in considering an absorbing incident medium and/or emergent medium. The most interesting case is that where the incident medium is transparent and the emergent medium absorbing: indeed, if the incident medium were strongly absorbing, light could not propagate therein to reach the antireflection layer.

Starting from equation (3), in the case κ₁>0.15 and replacing n₃ by N₃=n₃−jk₃ we obtain:

$\begin{matrix} {{v_{1}^{2} - \kappa_{1}^{2}} = {1 + {\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\kappa_{3}\frac{{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}} - {\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\kappa_{3}}}{\left( {\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}} - 1} \right)}}}} & \left( {7a} \right) \\ {\delta_{1} = \frac{\left( {\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}} - 1} \right)}{{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}} - {\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\kappa_{3}}}} & \left( {7b} \right) \end{matrix}$

-   -   where κ₃=k₃/√{square root over (n₀n₃)}.

We remark that, in equation 7b, a high value of κ₃ can reverse the sign of δ₁. Consequently, it is possible to make an absorbing antireflection layer deposited on a substrate which is also absorbing, illuminated through its face opposite to said substrate (“front face” configuration). It may be for example a metallic layer deposited on a semi-conducting substrate or the converse, this having applications for example in micro-electronics. Layers of this type have been described by the aforementioned paper by R. M. A. Azzam et al. The aforementioned paper by M. A. Kats et al., furthermore, has described layers which are similar but do not totally cancel the reflection. These publications, however, do not provide any general and systematic design process for such layers.

The theory set forth hereinabove makes it possible to design and produce a contrast-amplifying support comprising an absorbing layer deposited on an absorbing substrate as has been described above for the case of a transparent substrate—but by using equations 7a/7b instead of equations 6a/6b.

A contrast-amplifying support SAC′ of this type, comprising an absorbing substrate SA and an absorbing antireflection layer CA′ described by equations 7a and 7b, is represented in FIG. 8. Observation is done “front face” (on the opposite side of the layer from the substrate) by means of a parallel light beam FL, or of a Gaussian laser beam focused as in the case of FIG. 6. The materials mentioned with reference to the layer CA can also be used to make a layer CA′. The latter can also be functionalized or be made with chemical or biological species, optionally marked, fixed by a functionalization layer, in particular for detection or assaying applications. 

1. A method for producing a contrast-amplifying support comprising an absorbing substrate carrying at least one absorbing layer, said method comprising a design step for said support and a step of hardware production of the support in accordance with said design step, wherein said design step comprises the following steps: i) choosing an illumination wavelength λ; ii) choosing a material constituting said substrate and exhibiting, at said illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index N3=n3−jk3, where k3≧0.01 and preferably k3≧0.1; iii) choosing an ambient medium in contact with said layer on the side opposite to said substrate and exhibiting, at said illumination wavelength λ, a real refractive index n0; iv) determining a nominal complex refractive index N1=n1−jk1 and a nominal thickness e1 of said layer which are such that it behaves in the guise of antireflection layer when it is illuminated under normal incidence at said illumination wavelength λ; and v) choosing a material constituting said layer and exhibiting, at said illumination wavelength λ, a complex refractive index whose real and imaginary parts coincide with those of said nominal complex refractive index at least by a tolerance of less than or equal to 5%, and preferably less than or equal to 0.3%; in which, during said step iv), said nominal complex refractive index and said nominal thickness are chosen satisfying the following conditions: $\begin{matrix} {{v_{1}^{2} = {1 + \kappa_{1}^{2} + {\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\kappa_{3}\frac{{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}} - {\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\kappa_{3}}}{\left( {\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}} - 1} \right)}}}};} & \left. a \right) \\ {{\delta_{1} = \frac{\left( {\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}} - 1} \right)}{{2v_{1}\kappa_{1}} - {\sqrt{\frac{n_{0}}{n_{3}}}\kappa_{3}}}};} & \left. b \right) \\ {{\kappa_{1} \leq v_{1}};{and}} & \left. c \right) \\ {{k_{1} \geq 0.15}{{where}\text{:}}{{\delta_{1} = {\frac{2\pi \; n_{0}}{\lambda}e_{1}}};}{{v_{1} = \frac{n_{1}}{\sqrt{n_{0}n_{3}}}};{and}}{{\kappa_{i} = {{\frac{\kappa_{i}}{\sqrt{n_{0}n_{3}}}\mspace{14mu} {for}\mspace{14mu} i} = 0}},1,3.}} & \left. d \right) \end{matrix}$
 2. The production method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said absorbing layer is made of a conducting material such as a metal and wherein said substrate is made of a semi-conducting material.
 3. The production method as claimed in claim 1, wherein said absorbing layer is made of a semi-conducting material and wherein said substrate is made of a conducting material such as a metal. 